AP European History Chapter 25: Europe and the World, 1870 - 1914 Über-Detailed Study Questions The Politics of Mapmaking and the European Balance of Power, 1870 - 1914 1. People drew maps before they knew how to _____. Yet in 1885 only _____ (fraction) of the land surface of the earth had been surveyed. In the _____-year period before 1990, European and American surveyors and cartographers fanned out around the globe to every continent including _____. 2. Representatives of different countries argued over the _____ for measurement, and even the _____ and _____ that should be used on official maps. 3. Mapmakers from Europe and the United States began to gather regularly at their own international _____ with the goal of devising a uniform map of the world that would satisfy everyone. They failed repeatedly. 4. The _____ argued that the _____ should be the standard measurement for the world map. The British countered with _____ and _____, unscientifically developed units of measurement to which they had been committed for centuries. 5. Those scientists who acknowledged the logic of using the meter could not agree on which prototype meter should be taken as standard. Should the meter be measured according to the common method of the movement of a _____? If so, _____ varying from one place to another on the earth’s surface would result in different meter lengths. 6. Most agreed that the meter should be measured in reference to the arc of the meridian. But where should the _____, the place on the map that indicated zero degrees _____, be located since it was not a fixed phenomenon? 7. Unlike the _____, which is midway between the _____ and _____, zero longitude can be drawn anywhere. _____, _____, and _____ were just three of the competing sites designated as zero longitude in the nineteenth century. 8. Not least of all, a standardized map would make standardized _____ easier. Standard [previous blank] could be calculated according to degrees of longitude. _____ had _____ (#) different time zones in 1891. In _____, every city had its own time taken from _____ readings. The United States had more than _____ time zones from one coast to the other. 9. In modern industrial societies with _____ timetables and legal contracts, time had to be controlled and it had to be exact. In other words, time had to be standardized. Specialists proposed the _____ in _____, _____, as the best place to locate the prime meridian in order to calculate a standard time system. The French balked, insisting on _____ as the only candidate for the designation. 10. In the end, there was a compromise. The _____ system, created in the _____, prevailed as the standard of measurement, and the prime meridian passed through the Royal Greenwich Observatory, where standard time was calculated for most of the globe. 11. The key to standardization, in touchstone, was determined by _____ dominance. _____, the most powerful imperial power, became the starting point for measuring time and space. 12. The accompanying map (p. 875) provides a dramatic example of the conquest of territories by the British Empire in 1886. The map is Great Britain’s report card of success between 1785 and 1886. _____, sitting astride the “_____” in the bottom corner, is held up by _____ and attended by women of color with _____. 13. _____, _____, men of the _____, and a British _____ all witness Britannia’s triumph. In the right panel, _____ women are erotically presented amid garlands and tropical flora, mirroring the people from colder climates on the opposing panel. 14. In 1891, a young _____ geographer named _____ proposed an international map of the world. His idea was to produce a map using standard symbols and colors and omitting _____. In the age of _____, being able to indicate the extent of territorial control of nations on maps became a supreme value. 15. The politics of _____ combined with rising nationalist movements in _____ Europe and the _____ to create a mood of increasing confrontation among Europe’s great powers. The European _____ so carefully crafted by Germany’s _____ began to disintegrate with his departure from office in 1890. 16. The map of Europe had been redrawn in the two decades after 1850. By 1871, Europe consisted of five great powers, known as the _____ – _____, _____, _____, _____, and _____ – and a handful of lesser states. 17. The declaration of a _____ in 1871 and the emergence of _____ with _____ as its capital in 1870 unified numerous disparate states. Although not always corresponding to _____ and _____ differences among Europe’s peoples, national boundaries appeared fixed, with no country aspiring to territorial expansion at the expense of its neighbors. 18. Under the _____ of _____, Germany led the way in forging a new alliance system based on the realistic assessment of power politics within Europe. In 1873, the previous man joined together the three most conservative powers of the Big Five – _____, _____, and _____ – into the _____. Consultation over mutual interests and friendly neutrality were the cornerstones of the alliance. 19. The Three Emperors’ League was one example of the geographic imperatives driving _____. Bismarck was determined to banish the specter of a two-front war by isolating _____ on the Continent. 20. Each of the Great Powers had a vulnerability, a geographic Achilles’ heel. Germany’s vulnerability lay in its _____ ports. German shipping along its only coast could easily be bottlenecked by a powerful naval force. Such an event, the Germans knew, could destroy their rapidly growing international trade. What was worse, powerful _____ forces could “_____” Germany. 21. As _____’s century-old factories slowly became obsolete under peeling coats of paint, Germany enjoyed the advantages of a latecomer to _____ – forced to start from scratch by investing in the most advanced machinery and technology. The _____ was willing to support industrial expansion, _____ and technological training, and _____ for its workers. 22. Yet as Germany surged forward to seize its share of world markets, it was acutely aware that it was hemmed in on the Continent. Germany could not extend its frontiers the way _____ had to the east. German gains in the _____ War in _____ and _____ could not be repeated without risking greater enmity. 23. German leaders saw the threat of _____ as a second geographic weakness. Bismarck’s awareness of those geographic facts of life prompted his engineering of the Three Emperors’ League in 1873, _____ (#) years after the founding of the German Empire. 24. _____ was Europe’s second largest nation in land and the third largest in _____. The same factors that had made it a great European power – its _____ and its _____ – now threatened to destroy it. The ramshackle empire of Europe, it had no geographical unity. Its vulnerability came from within, from the centrifugal forces of linguistic and cultural diversity. Weakened by nationalities clamoring for independence and self-rule and by an unresponsive political system, Austria-Hungary remained backward _____ and unable to respond to the Western industrial challenge. It seemed likely to collapse. 25. To the southeast lay the _____, a great decaying conglomeration of that bridged _____ and _____. Politically feeble and on the verge of _____, the first blank, with _____ at its core, was composed of a vast array of ethnically, linguistically, and culturally diverse peoples. 26. In the _____ (#) years before 1914, increasing social unrest and nationalist bids for _____ had plagued the Ottoman Empire. As was the case with the _____ in _____, the Ottomans maintained power with increasing difficulty over the myriad ethnic groups struggling to be free. 27. The Ottoman Empire, called “the _____ of Europe” by contemporaries, found two kinds of relations sitting at its bedside: those who would do anything to ensure its survival, no matter how weak, and those who longed for and sought to hasten its demise. Fortunately for the Ottoman Empire, its enemies were willing to preserve it in its weakened state rather than see one of the other rival European powers benefit from its collapse. 28. The Ottomans had already seen parts of their holdings lopped off in the nineteenth century. _____, ever conscious of its interests in _____, had acquired _____, _____, _____ and _____ from the Ottomans. 29. _____ insinuated itself into Turkish internal affairs and financed the _____ in the attempt to link the _____ to the _____. 30. _____ acquired territories on the banks of the _____ and had plans to take _____. But it was the volatile _____ that threatened to upset the European power balance. The Balkans appeared to be a territory that begged for dismemberment. Internally, the _____ sought independence from their _____ and _____ oppressors. External pressures were equally great, with each of the major powers following its own geopolitical agenda. 31. The system of _____ formed between and among European states was guided by two realities of geopolitics: the tension between _____ and _____, and _____’s fear of becoming landlocked. 32. France had lost its dominance on the Continent in 1870-1871, when it was easily defeated by _____ at the head of a nascent German Empire. With its back to the _____, France faced the smaller states of _____, _____, _____, and _____ and the industrially and militarily powerful Germany. 33. France had suffered the humiliation of losing territory to Germany – _____ and _____ in 1871 – and was well aware of its continued vulnerability. Geopolitically, France felt trapped and isolated and in need of powerful friends as a counterweight to German power. 34. The second reality guiding alliances was Russia’s preoccupation with maintaining free access to the _____ Sea. Russia, clearly Europe’s greatest landed power, was vulnerable because it could be landlocked by frozen or blockaded _____. The ice that crippled its naval and commercial vessels in the _____ Sea drove Russia _____ through Asia to secure another ice-blocked port on the _____ at _____ in 1860 and to seek ice-free _____ ports. 35. Russia was equally obsessed with protecting its warm-water ports on the _____ Sea. Whoever controlled the strait of the _____ controlled Russia’s _____ export trade, on which its economic prosperity depended. All diplomatic arrangements, especially after the turn of the century, took into account those two geopolitical realities. 36. Ostensibly, Russia had the most to gain from the extension of its _____ and the creation of pro-Russian _____. It saw that by championing _____ nationalist groups in _____ Europe, it could greatly strengthen its own position at the expense of the two great declining empires, _____ and _____. 37. Russia hoped to draw the Slavs into its orbit by fostering the creation of independent states in the _____. A _____ revolt began in two Ottoman provinces, _____ and _____, in 1874. 38. International opinion pressured Turkey to initiate reforms. Serbia declared war on Turkey on 30 June 1876; _____ did the same the next day. _____, supporting the Ottoman Empire because of its trading interests in the Mediterranean, found itself in a delicate position of perhaps condemning an ally when it received news of Turkish atrocities against _____ in _____. 39. _____ insisted that Britain was bound to defend _____ because of British interests in the _____ and _____. While Britain stood on the sidelines, _____, with _____ as an ally, declared war on the Ottoman Empire. 40. The war was over quickly, with Russia capturing all of _____, forcing the Ottoman _____, _____, to sue for _____ on 31 January 1878. 41. Great Britain did not share Germany’s and Russia’s fears of strangulation by blockade. And although the question of _____ home rule was a nationalities problem for Britain, it paled in comparison with _____’s internal challenge. 42. As an island kingdom, however, Great Britain relied on _____ for its survival. The first of the European nations to become an urban and industrial power, Britain was forced to do so at the expense of its _____ sector. It needed to import foodstuffs to feed its people. Britain’s geographic vulnerability was its dependence on access to its empire and the maintenance of open _____. Britain saw its greatest menace coming from the rise of other sea powers – notably _____. 43. _____, a seemingly disinterested party acting an “_____,” hosted the peace conference that met at _____. The British succeeded in blocking Russia’s intentions for a _____ satellite and keeping the Russians from taking _____. 44. Russia abandoned its support of _____ nationalism, and Austria-Hungary occupied _____ and _____. The peace concluded at the 1878 _____ disregarded Serbian claims, thereby promising continuing conflict over the nationalities question. 45. The Congress of Berlin also marked the emergence of a new estrangement among the Great Powers. Russia believed itself betrayed by Bismarck and abandoned in its alliance with Germany. Bismarck in turn cemented a _____ between Austria-Hungary and Germany in 1879 that survived until the collapse of the two regimes in 1918. The _____ was renewed in 1881, now with the stipulations regarding the division of the spoils in case of a war against _____. 46. In 1882, _____ was asked to join the Dual Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, thus converting it into the _____, which prevailed until the _____ of 1914. Germany, under Bismarck’s tutelage, signed treaties with _____, _____ and _____ and established friendly terms with _____. A new Balkan crisis in 1885, however, shattered the illusion of stable relations. 47. Hostilities erupted between _____ and _____. Russian threatened to occupy the first blank (the B- word), but Austria stepped in to prevent Russian domination of the Balkans, thus threatening the alliance of the Three Emperors’ League. 48. Russia was further angered by German unwillingness to support its interests against Austrian actions in the Balkans. Germany maintained relations with Russia in a new _____ drawn up in 1887, which stipulated that each power would maintain neutrality should the other find itself at war. 49. Bismarck now walked a fine line, balancing alliances and selectively disclosing the terms of secret treaties to nonsignatory countries with the goal of preserving the peace. He was described by his successor as the only man who could keep _____ (#) _____ in the air at the same time. Germany dropped them after Bismarck resigned in 1890. 50. Germany allowed the arrangement with Russia to lapse. Russia, in turn, allied itself in 1894 with _____. Also allied with _____, the first blank had broken out of the isolation that Bismarck had intended for it two decades earlier. The _____ came into existence following the _____ of 1907. 51. It was now the Triple Entente of _____, _____, and _____ against the Triple Alliance of _____, _____, and _____. (Just a review question to check understanding on this topic.) 52. There was still every confidence that the two camps could balance each other and preserve the peace. But in 1908-1909, the unresolved Balkan problem threatened to topple Europe’s precarious peace. Against Russia’s objections, Austria-Hungary annexed _____ and _____, the provinces that it had occupied since 1978. 53. Russia supported _____’s discontent over Austrian acquisition of the predominantly _____ territories that the first blank believed should be united with its own lands. Unwilling to risk a European war at this point, Russia was ultimately forced to back down under _____ pressure. The [last blank]-y had to contend with its geopolitical fear – hostile neighbors, _____ and _____, on its western and eastern frontiers. 54. A third Balkan crisis erupted in 1912 when _____ and _____ fought over the possession of _____ in North _____. The Balkan states took advantage of the opportunity to increase their holdings at Turkey’s expense. The action quickly involved Great Power interests once again. A second war broke out in 1913 over Serbian interests in _____. Russia backed Serbia against Austro-Hungarian support of Bulgaria. 55. The Russians and Austrians prepared for war while the _____ and _____ urged peaceful resolution. Although hostilities ceased, Serbian resentment toward Austria-Hungary over its frustrated nationalism was greater than ever. 56. Britain, in its backing of _____, and Germany, in its support of _____, were enmeshed in alliances that could involve them in a military confrontation. The New Imperialism 57. Europeans in the last _____ (fraction) of the nineteenth century did not invent the idea of empire: ancient civilizations had valued _____. 58. Even before 1870 in Europe, the influence of _____ had stretched far beyond its island holdings to _____ and _____. Russia held _____ and _____, and France ruled _____ and _____. 59. Older empires – _____, for example – had survived from the _____ century but as hollow shells. 60. In part, the new imperialism was the acquisition of territories on an intense and unprecedented scale. Industrialization created the tools of _____, _____, and _____ that permitted the rapid pace of global empire building. 61. The _____ also participated in the new imperialism, less by territorial acquisition and more by developing an “_____” empire of trade and influence in the _____. 62. Only _____ commanded the technology and resources necessary for the new scale of imperialist expansion. Rivalry among a few European [previous blank]-s – notably _____, _____, and _____ – was a common denominator that set the standards by which the nations and other European nation-states gained control of the globe by 1900. 63. Why did the Europeans create vast empires? Were empires built for economic gain, military protection, or national glory? Questions about motives may obscure common features of the new imperialism. Industrial powers sought to take over _____ regions, not in isolated areas but all over the globe. 64. _____, _____, and _____ – the great forces of Western industrialization — were responsible for seemingly _____ the globe. 65. Technology not only allowed Europeans to accomplish tasks and to _____ goods efficiently, but it also altered the previous conception of _____ and _____. 66. Steam, which powered _____, proved equally efficient as an energy source in transportation. Great _____ steamships fueled by _____ replaced the smaller, slower, _____-powered _____ sailing vessels that had ruled the seas for centuries. 67. Steam-powered vessels transported large cargoes of _____ and _____ more quickly and more reliably than the sailing ships. _____ ships were superior to wood in their durability, lightness, water-_____, cargo space, speed, and _____. 68. For most of the nineteenth century, _____ trading ships and the [last blank] navy dominated the seas, but after 1880 other nations, especially _____, challenged it by building versatile and efficient iron _____. 69. In a society in which _____ (expression), steamships were important because, for the first time, ocean-going vessels could meet schedules as precisely and as predictably as _____ could. 70. Just as the imperial _____ had used their network of roads to link far-flung territories to the capital, Europeans used sea-lanes to join their _____ to the home country. 71. Until 1850, Europeans had ventured no farther on the _____ continent than its coastal regions. The installation of _____-burning _____ on smaller boats permitted navigation of previously uncharted and unnavigable _____. 72. Steam power made exploration and migration possible and greatly contributed to knowledge of terrain, natural wealth, and _____. Smaller steam-powered vessels also increased European inland trade with _____, _____, and _____. 73. While technology improved European mobility on water, it also literally moved the land. _____ were deepened to accommodate the new iron and then steel-hulled ships. One of the greatest engineering feats of the century was the construction of the _____-mile long canal across the _____ in _____. 74. The Suez _____, completed in 1869, joined the _____ Sea and the _____ Sea and created a new, safer trade route to the East. No longer did trading vessels have to make the long voyage around Africa’s _____. 75. The Suez Canal was built by the _____ (nationality) under the supervision of _____ (1805-1894), a _____ with no technical or financial background who was able to promote construction because of concessions he received from _____, the _____ of _____. 76. De Lesseps later oversaw the initial construction of the _____ in the _____ Hemisphere. The combination of French mismanagement, bankruptcy, and the high incidence of _____ among work crews enabled the _____ to acquire rights to the Panama project and complete the canal by 1914. 77. _____ miles long, the Panama Canal connected the world’s two largest bodies of water, the _____ and the _____ oceans, across the _____ of Panama by a waterway containing a series of _____. 78. The passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean took less than _____ hours – much less time than it took using the various overland routes of voyaging around the tip of _____. 79. Both the Suez and Panama canals were built in pursuit of speed. Shorter distances meant quicker travel, which in turn meant higher _____. 80. CAPTION QUESTIONS (pp. 880-1): Elaborate ceremony marked the opening of the Suez Canal to navigation on November 17, 1869. The first convoy of ships to pass through the canal was led by a French ship carrying the _____ (title) _____. The transatlantic telegraph cable was the first intercontinental communications link of the electric age. This illustration shows the _____, the largest ship afloat, which finally succeeded in laying the cable in 1866. 81. European carried the technologies of destruction as well as survival with them into less-developed areas of the world. New types of _____ produced in the second half of the nineteenth century included _____-loading rifles, _____ rifles, and _____. The new weapons gave the advantages of both accurate aim and rapid fire. 82. The _____ of _____ warriors and the primitive weaponry of _____ rebels were no match for sophisticated European arms which permitted their bearers to lie down while firing and to remain undetected at distance of up to a _____ (fraction) mile. 83. Technology also altered time by increasing the speed with which Westerners communicated with other parts of the world. In 1830, for example, it took about _____ years for a person sending a letter from Great Britain to _____ to receive a reply. In 1850, steam-powered mail boats shortened the time required for the same roundtrip correspondence to about _____ or _____ months. But the real revolution in communication came through _____. 84. Thousands of miles of _____ telegraph wire laced countries together; insulated underwater cables linked continents to each other. By the late nineteenth century, a vast telegraph network connected Europe to every area of the world. In 1870, a telegram from _____ to _____ arrived in a matter of _____, instead of months, and a response could be received back on the same day. 85. Faster communications extended power and control throughout empires. Europeans could communicate immediately with their distant colonies, dispatching _____, _____, and _____. The communication network eliminated the problem of overextension that had plagued _____ imperial organization in the third century. 86. Technological advances in other areas helped foster European imperialism in the nineteenth century. Advances in _____ permitted European men and women to penetrate disease-ridden _____ and _____. After 1850, European explorers, traders, missionaries, and adventurers carried _____ pills. [last blank], the bitter tasting derivative of _____ tree bark, was discovered to be an effective treatment for _____. 87. The treatment had its first important test during the _____ invasion of _____ in 1830, and it allowed [first blank in this number] to stay healthy enough to conquer the _____ country between 1830 and 1847. 88. _____ (1813-1873) and _____ (1841-1904) were just two of the many explorers who crossed vast terrains and explored the waterways of Africa, after malaria – the number 1 killer of _____ – had been controlled. 89. The new technology did not cause the new imperialism. Viewed as a _____, however, the new technology does explain how vast areas of land and millions of people were conquered so rapidly. 90. There are no easy or simple explanations for the new imperialism. Individuals made their fortunes overseas, and heavy industries such as the _____ firm in _____ prospered with the expansion of state-protected colonies. Yet many colonies were economically worthless. _____ and _____, acquired for their strategic and political importance, constituted an economic loss for the _____, who poured more funds into their administration than they were able to extract. 91. Each imperial power held one or more colonies whose costs outweighed the return. Yet that did not mean that some Europeans were simply irrational in their pursuit of empire or that they were driven by an atavistic desire to recapture the glories of a precapitalist past and willing to incur financial losses in order to do so. (Just a concept, possibility for multiple choice.) 92. The test for _____ motivation cannot simply be reduced to a balance sheet of _____ and _____ because, in the end, an account of state revenues and state expenditures provides only a static picture of the business of empire. 93. Even losses cannot be counted as proof against the profit motive in expansion. In modern _____, profits, especially great ones, are often predicated on _____. _____ and _____, as smaller nations with limited resources, failed as players in the game in which the great industrial powers called the shots. _____ through the acquisition of empire was one way of keeping alive in the game. 94. Imperialism was influenced by business interests, market considerations, and the pursuit of individual and national fortunes. Not by accident did the great industrial powers control the scramble and dictate the terms of expansion. Nor was it merely fortuitous that _____, the nation that provided the model for European expansion, dedicated itself to the establishment of a profitable worldwide network of _____ and _____. 95. Above all, the search for investment opportunities – whether _____ in_____ or _____ in _____ – lured Europeans into a world system that challenged capitalist ingenuity and imagination. Acquiring territory was only one means of protecting investments. But there were other benefits associated with the acquisition of territory that cannot be reduced to economic terms, and those too must be considered. 96. _____, or the politics of _____, is based on the recognition that certain areas of the world are valuable for political reasons. The term, first used at the end of the _____ century, described a process well under way in international relations. 97. _____ influenced by geopolitical concerns recognized the strategic value of land. Some territory was considered important because of its proximity to acquired _____ or to territory targeted for takeover. _____, for example, occupied thousands of square miles of the _____ to protect its interests in _____. 98. Other territory was important because of its proximity to _____. Egypt had significance for _____ not because of its inherent economic potential but because it permitted them to protect access to lucrative markets in _____ through the Suez Canal. Beginning in 1875, the British purchased shares in the canal. By 1879, Egypt was under the informal _____ rule of _____ and _____. 99. The British used the deterioration of internal Egyptian politics to justify their occupation of the country in 1882. Protected access to India also accounted for Great Britain’s maintenance of _____ outposts, its acquisition of territory on the _____ coast of _____, and its occupation of territory in _____. 100. A third geopolitical motive for annexation was the necessity of fueling bases throughout the world. Faster and more reliable than wind-powered vessels, _____-powered ships were nonetheless dependent on guaranteed fueling bases in friendly ports of call. Islands in the _____ and the _____ were acquired primarily to serve as coaling stations for the great steamers carrying manufactured goods to colonial ports and returning with _____ and raw materials. 101. Ports along the southern rim of _____ served the same purpose. The need for protection of colonies, fueling ports, and sea-lanes led to the creation of _____ bases such as those on the _____ Sea at _____ by the _____ (nationality), along the _____ Sea at _____ by the _____, and in the _____ Ocean at _____ by the _____. 102. In turn, the acquisition of territories justified the increase in naval _____ and the size of _____. _____ still had the world’s largest navy, but by the beginning of the twentieth century, the _____ and _____ had entered the competition for dominance of sea-lanes. _____ joined the contest by expanding its navy as a vehicle for its own claims to the empire in the _____. 103. The politics of geography was land- as well as sea-based. As navies grew to protect sea-lanes, _____ expanded to police new lands. Between 1890 and 1914, military expenditures of Western governments grew phenomenally, with war _____ doubling in size. 104. In both its impact on domestic budgets and its protection of markets and trading routes, geopolitics had a strong economic component. _____ became consumers of heavy industry; their predictable participation in markets for armaments and military supplies helped control fluctuations in the business cycle and reduce _____ at home. 105. A side effect of the growing importance of geopolitics was the increased influence of military and naval _____ in foreign and domestic policy making. 106. Many European statesmen in the last quarter of the nineteenth century gave stirring _____ about the importance of _____ as a means of enhancing national prestige. In his _____ speech of 1872, _____, British _____ in 1868 and 1774-1880, put the challenge boldly to the British (read quote p. 884). 107. National prestige was not an absolute value but one weighed relatively. Possessing an empire may have meant “keeping up with the Joneses,” as it did for smaller countries such as _____. Imperial status was important to a country such as _____, which was willing to go bankrupt to maintain its territories. 108. But prestige without _____ power was the form of imperialism without its substance. Nation-states could, through the acquisition of overseas territories, gain bargaining chips to be played at the international conference table. In that way, smaller nations hoped to be taken seriously in the system of _____ that preserved “the _____” in Europe. 109. Western _____ deliberately fostered the desire for the advancement of national interests. They competed for readers, and their circulation often depended on the passions they aroused. Filled with _____ calculated to titillate and entertain, and with advertisements promising _____, newspapers wrested foreign policy from the realm of the specialist and transformed politics into another form of _____. 110. The drama and vocabulary of _____, whose mass appeal as a leisure activity also dates from the era, were now applied to imperialist politics. Whether it was a _____ match or a territorial conquest, readers backed the “home” team, disdained the opposition, and competed for the thrill of victory. 111. It marked quite a change for urban dwellers whose _____ worked the land and did not look beyond the _____ of their home villages. Newspapers forged a national consciousness whereby individuals learned to identify with collective causes they often did not fully comprehend. Some observed what was happening with a critical eye, identifying a deep-seated need in modern men and women for excitement in their otherwise dull and dreary lives. 112. Information conveyed in newspapers shaped opinion, and opinion, in turn, could influence policy. Leaders had to reckon with the new creation of “_____.” In a typical instance, _____ newspaper editors promoted feverish public outcry for conquest of the _____ by pointing out the need to revenge _____ advances in _____. 113. “_____” in France was so high in the summer of 1882 that French policy makers were pressured to pursue claims in the _____ without adequate assessment or reflection. As a result, the French government evicted _____ and _____ from the _____ Congo territory and enforced questionable treaty claims rather than risk public censure for appearing weak and irresolute. 114. Public opinion was certainly influential, but it also could be manipulated. In _____, the government often promoted colonial hysteria through the press in order to advance its own political ends. _____ (title) _____ used his power over the press to support _____ and to influence _____ outcomes in 1884. 115. His successors were deft at promoting the “_____” atmosphere that surrounded colonial expansion in order to direct attention away from social problems at home and to maintain domestic stability. 116. The printed word was also manipulated in _____, critics asserted, by business interests during the _____ War to keep public enthusiasm for the war effort high. _____ (1858-1940), a _____ and _____ of imperialism, denounced the “_____ of the press” in his hard-hitting _____ (1901), which appeared while the war was still being waged. 117. Hobson recognized jingoism as the appropriate term for the “_____ whereby the love of one’s own nation is transformed into hatred of another nation, and into the fierce craving to destroy the individual members of that other nation.” 118. Certainly jingoism was not a new phenomenon in 1900, nor was it confined to Britain. Throughout Europe, a mass public appeared increasingly willing to support conflict to defend its national honor. _____ (hatred of foreigners) melded with _____, both nurtured by the mass press, to put new pressures on the determination of foreign policy. 119. Government elites, who formerly had operated behind closed doors far removed from public scrutiny, were not accountable in new ways to faceless masses. Even in _____ states such as _____, the opinion of the masses was a powerful political force that could destroy individual _____ and dissolve governments. 120. Every nation in Europe had its jingoes, those willing to risk war for national _____. Significantly, the term jingo was coined in 1878 during a _____ showdown with the _____ over _____. The sentiment that “the Russians shall not have _____” was so strong that the acceptability of war was set to music. (see p. 885) 121. To varying degrees, all of the factors – _____, _____, and _____ – motivated the actions of the three great imperialist powers – _____, _____, and _____ – and their less-powerful European neighbors. The same reasons account for the global aspirations of non-European nations such as the _____ and _____. 122. Imperialism followed a variety of patterns but always had a built-in component of _____ and _____. It was both a cause and a proof of a world system of states in which the actions of one nation affected the others. The European Search for Territory and Markets 123. The daily press recorded the number of square miles gained and the captive populations taken, and for readers that was often the end of the story. Few Europeans looked on imperialism as a relationship of power between two parties and, like all relationships, one influenced by both partners. Fewer still understood or appreciated the distinctive qualities of the conquered peoples. (no questions) 124. The areas European imperialism affected varied widely in their political organization. Throughout _____, states were generally small or even nonexistent, and Europeans considered their governmental institutions too ineffectual to produce the economic changes and growth of trade Europe wanted. Military takeover and _____ by European officials seemed the only feasible way to establish empire there. 125. In Asia, one the other hand, societies such as _____ and _____ were territorially large and possessed efficient institutions of government dominated by established political _____. 126. Although they were more difficult to conquer, their leaders were also more likely to cooperate with the imperial powers because their own interests were often similar to those of Westerners. For those reasons, European empire builders pursued a variety of models: formal military empires (as in _____), informal empires (as in _____), or formal but indirect rule over hierarchical societies (as in _____). 127. In the mid-1850s, a committee of the _____ recommended that Britain withdraw from the scattering of small colonies it possessed in _____, arguing that they were costly anachronisms in an era of _____. 128. In 1898, the _____ of France, when commenting on French policies of the previous _____ years, remarked, “We have behaved like _____ in Africa, having been led astray by irresponsible people called the ‘_____.’” 129. The “mad” event that had altered the political landscape in Africa was the so-called “_____” that is usually considered as extending from around 1875 to around 1912. By its end, virtually all of Africa was under _____ control. 130. Africa is a large and complex continent, and the reasons of Europeans for pursuing specific pieces of African territory were similarly complex. The explanations for the acquisition of a particular colony, therefore, depend largely on the historical context of that particular case. In certain areas, such as the West African _____ zones of the _____ and the _____, ambitious _____ military men sought to advance their careers by carving out grand colonies. 131. British _____ (title) _____ (1850-1916) reviewed the troops. He served in colonial theaters from _____ to _____ and personified nineteenth-century British imperial expansion. 132. The existence of valuable _____ motivated the scramble for the area now called _____, the _____ _____ belt, and other areas. Along the _____ coast, chronic disputes between traders working in a souring economy seemed to demand European annexation. Some colonies, such as those in what are now _____ and _____, were created to please _____ already working there. 133. Britain took _____ and France took _____ for strategic reasons. And in _____, _____, _____, and _____, some Europeans seized areas to keep other Europeans from doing the same. 134. There were also basic underlying historical factors favoring the scramble as a whole. One was the rapid development in Europe after 1870 of pseudoscientific _____ ideas asserting that Europeans were a _____ and that Africans were _____. 135. The writings of _____ were critical in gaining broad popular acceptance for the concept of a racial _____ governed by _____ and operating within an evolutionist dynamic. That was not merely because his _____ (1859) and _____ (1871) “scientifically” legitimated the concept of evolution, but also because he himself explicitly suggested its applicability to _____. 136. His suggestion was quickly taken up by intellectuals such as _____ (1820-1903) and subsequently popularized as _____. According to the notion, the various racial groups not only occupied distinct positions in a staged sequence of “_____” over time, with whites the most advanced and blacks the least so, but were also engaged in a natural conflict or struggle with one another. 137. Social Darwinism’s strongest message was that the _____ were destined to prevail, an idea especially welcome to racists of the later nineteenth century because it could be used to justify as “natural” the _____ upon which they were then embarked. 138. A second underlying historical factor was the atmosphere created by an economic downturn in Europe that lasted from 1873 until 1896. The downturn, coupled with _____’s rapid rise to economic power during the second phase of the _____ in the 1870s and 1880s, was deeply unsettling to many Europeans. 139. _____ policies springing from new economic anxieties eroded the earlier European faith in free trade. Many Europeans favored acquiring African territory just in case it should turn out to be economically useful. Even _____, long the major champion of free trade, became every more [first blank] and imperialistic as the century neared its end. 140. Historians generally agree that the person who provided the catalyst for the scramble was _____, king of _____ (1835-1909). Sheer greed motivated him. In early 1876, he had read a report about the _____ that claimed it was “mostly a magnificent and healthy country of unspeakable _____” that promised “to repay any enterprising capitalist.” 141. Leopold, an ambitious and frustrated king ruling over a small country, went to work at once to acquire the Congo Basin, an area _____ the size of the _____. Cloaking himself in the mantle of _____ and asserting that all he desired was to stamp out the remnants of the East African _____, in late 1876 Leopold organized the _____. Leopold II’s association soon established trading stations on the region’s _____ and coerced much valuable _____ from the people. 142. Leopold successfully lobbied in Europe for formal recognition of his association’s right to rule the Congo Basin. The action provoked objections from _____ and _____, and, after much diplomatic wrangling, an international conference was finally held in _____ in late 1884 to decide who should rule the Congo. 143. The Berlin Conference was important, not only because it yielded the Congo Basin to Leopold as the _____, but also because it laid down the ground rules for all other colonial acquisitions in Africa. For international recognition of a claim, “effective _____” would be required. 144. That meant (number 143) that no longer would _____ in an area be considered adequate for establishing sovereignty; instead, a real presence calculated to produce “_____ development” would be needed. If Leopold’s actions began the scramble by panicking the European states, the Berlin Conference organized it. However, it is clear in retrospect that the scramble would have occurred even without Leopold II’s greedy intervention. 145. In their disputes over apportioning Africa, the Europeans were remarkably pacific with each other. Although _____ threatened _____ with war in 1890 in a conflict over the area around _____, and although it appeared for a while that Britain and _____ were headed toward armed conflict in 1898 at _____ in a dispute over the _____ headwaters, peaceful diplomatic settlements that satisfied the imperial powers were always worked out. 146. Africa was not worth a war to Europeans. Yet in every instance of expansion in Africa, Europeans were ready to shoot _____. With _____’s invention in 1884 of a machine gun that could fire _____ bullets per _____, and with the sale of modern weapons to Africans banned by the _____ of 1890, the military advantage passed overwhelmingly to the imperialists. 147. As the _____ (nationality) poet _____ tellingly observed, “Whatever happens we have got/The Maxim gun, and they have not.” 148. The conquest of “them” became more like _____ than warfare. In 1893, for example, in _____, _____ Europeans, using only _____ machine guns, killed _____ (#)_____ people in less than _____ hours. In 1897, in _____ (direction) _____, a force of _____ Europeans and _____ African mercenaries defeated the _____ -man army of the _____ of _____. The nature of such warfare is well summed up in a report by _____ about the battle of _____, in the _____, in 1898. 149. After _____ hours of fighting, the number killed were _____ Britons, _____ _____ allies, and more than _____ Sudanese. Technology had made bravery and courage obsolete for the majority of Africans. 150. The sole exception to the general rule of easy conquest was _____. The history of the country illustrates the overriding importance of _____ in understanding the essential dynamic of the scramble. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the _____ of Ethiopia possessed little more than a grand title. The empire had broken down into its ethnic and regional components, each of which was fueled by its own “_____,” local rulers with little regard for the emperor. 151. Yet the dream of a united empire was alive and pursued by the emperors of the time, _____ -speaking “big men” with their political base on the fertile _____ that constituted the heartland of the country. In their campaigns to rebuild the empire, they relied increasingly on modern weapons imported from Europe. Their work went forward with some success. 152. By the early 1870s, however, the emperor realized that his accomplishments in recreating the Ethiopian empire were endangered by the resistance of the people whom he was then trying to force into his empire and, more ominously, by interference from the outside world, especially _____ to the north and the _____ to the west. An expansionary [first blank] actually invaded Ethiopian territory, and it was only their government’s _____ in 1876 that gave the emperor breathing room. 153. The opening of the _____ in 1869 had made the _____ and its surroundings attractive not only to Egypt but also to European countries eager to ensure their trade routes to Asia. By the end of the 1870s, when the scramble for Africa was getting seriously under way, _____, _____, and _____ were all contemplating acquiring land in the region. Soon thereafter, [first country] occupied _____ (1882), [second country] took _____ (1884), and [third country] seized _____ (1885). 154. The Ethiopian emperor, _____ (1889-1913), realized that he could exploit rival European interests in the area by playing off one European power against the others to obtain the _____ he needed for expanding his empire’s boundaries. Thus he gave certain concessions to France in return for French weapons. _____, upset by the growing French influence in Ethiopia, offered weapons as well, and the emperor accepted them. _____ and _____ joined in. 155. More and more modern weapons flowed into Ethiopia during the 1870s and 1880s and into the early 1890s, and Menelik steadily strengthened his military position, both to stop internal unrest and to block _____ from without. Because each European power feared its rivals’ influence in Ethiopia, each sold arms to Menelik, and Ethiopia remained largely unaffected by the scramble going on around it. 156. In the early 1890s, Menelik’s stratagems began to unravel. In 1889 he had signed the _____ with _____, granting it certain concessions in return for more arms shipments. Italy then claimed that Ethiopia had become an Italian _____ and moved against Menelik when he objected. 157. By 1896, Italy was ready for a major assault on the Ethiopian army. The Italians were heady with confident racism, believing that their forces could defeat the “primitive” Ethiopian with ease. However, General _____ (1841-1901), the commander of the _____ -man Italian army in _____, was wisely cautious. He understood that modern weapons functioned the same, whether they were fired by Africans or Italians. 158. Baratieri knew that Menelik’s army of some _____ troops had very long _____, and his strategy was to wait until Menelik could no longer supply his troops with _____. Then, he assumed, the soldiers would simply disappear and the Italians would walk in. 159. But the _____ of Italy, _____ (1819-1901), wanted a quick, glorious victory to enhance his political reputation. Crispi ordered Baratieri to send his army of 18,000 men into battle at once. Hopelessly outnumbered, the Italians lost more than _____ at the decisive battle of _____ on 1 March 1896. With its army destroyed and its artillery lost to the Ethiopians, Italy had no choice but to sue for peace. 160. Italy’s acceptance of Ethiopia as a _____ with greatly expanded imperial boundaries was soon ratified by France and Britain. As a consequence of its victory at Adowa – and attesting to the crucial importance of modern weaponry for survival in late-nineteenth-century Africa – Ethiopia was the only African country aside from the _____’s quasi-_____ of _____ not to be occupied in the scramble for Africa. 161. After 1896, Menelik, with his access to _____ assured by his country’s international recognition, continued his campaign to extend his control forcefully over the Ethiopian empire’s subordinate peoples. 162. Europeans fought white African _____ as well as black Africans during the scramble, as they seized their lands and resources. In _____, for example, the _____ engaged in a long war over access to the world’s largest supply of _____ with a group of “_____” – white settlers who had emigrated, mostly from the _____, and settled there during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. 163. After the _____ (1837-1844), in which a large number of Afrikaners had withdrawn from the British-controlled _____ (_____), the British had grudgingly recognized the independence of the _____ and the _____ – the Afrikaner republics in the interior – in a series of formal agreements. 164. The British complacently believed that the Afrikaners, economically weak and geographically isolated, could never challenge British preeminence in the region. Two events in the mid-1880s shattered British complacency. First, in 1884, _____ – Britain’s greatest rival – inserted itself into the region by annexing _____ as a _____ as part of its imperial adventures. 165. The British, aware that the Germans and the Afrikaners were as sympathetic to one another as both were hostile to them, worried about the German threat to their regional _____ and _____ prospects. 166. British fear of the Germans redoubled in 1886 when, in the _____ area of the _____ Republic, huge deposits of _____ were discovered. A group of rich _____ (nationality) _____ -mine owners moved in quickly to develop the gold mines in the area, for the [third blank] lay deep in the ground and could be mined only with a large capital investment, which the Afrikaners lacked. 167. The best known of the British investors was _____ (1853-1902), a _____ and financier intent upon expanding his wealth through an expansion of British power. He and his colleagues quickly recognized that Afrikaner governmental policies on _____, _____, and _____ were major impediments to profitable gold production. 168. Therefore, in 1895, with the connivance of members of the British government, they organized an attempt to overthrow the Afrikaner government. The attempt was led by _____ (title) _____ (1853-1917), Rhodes’s _____. It involved the invasion of Transvaal by _____ and came to be known as the _____. It was faultily executed, however, and to Rhodes’s utter humiliation, it failed. 169. The failure of the Jameson raiders prompted the British government to send a new agent, _____ (1854-1925), to the area. He was an ardent advocate of expanding the _____ and of keeping _____ influence in the region to a minimum. 170. Well aware of the importance of gold to Britain’s financial position in the world, Milner was determined to push the _____ into uniting with the British in South Africa, either through _____ or _____. By 1899 war had become inevitable, and in _____ (month) is broke out. The British confidently expected to win the war by _____, but the Afrikaners did not cooperate. Inept British commanders opposed by skillful Afrikaner _____ -warfare leaders guaranteed that the so-called _____ would drag on and on. 171. The British eventually sent _____ troops to South Africa, but the force could not decisively defeat the _____ Afrikaner fighting men. Casualties were high, not merely from the fighting, but because _____ epidemics broke out in the _____ in which the British interred Afrikaner women and children as they pursued their _____ policies. 172. By the war’s end in April 1902, _____ Afrikaners, _____ British imperial troops, and _____ Africans had died. Britain had also been widely criticized for having treated white Afrikaners as if they were black Africans. 173. In April 1902, the British accepted the conditional surrender of the Afrikaners. The British annexed the Afrikaners to the empire and had the opportunity of making the gold industry efficient. However, they had to promise the Afrikaners that no decisions regarding the political role of the black African majority in a future South African would be made before returning political power to the Afrikaners. That crucial concession ensured that segregation would remain the model for race relations in South Africa throughout the twentieth century. (good info) 174. By the time _____ broke out in 1914, the scramble for Africa was over and the map of the continent was colored in _____ inks. _____ had secured the largest chunk of the continent – some _____ million square miles – but it was mostly _____ and tropical forest. _____ had the second-largest empire, but it was richer in _____ and agricultural potential than France’s. 175. _____ was the proud possessor of two West African colonies, _____ and _____, as well as _____ and _____. _____ had inherited Leopold II’s _____ in 1908. _____ had finally consolidated its feeble hold on _____, _____, and _____. _____ and _____ held unimportant bits of coastal territory. 176. Only _____ and _____ were politically independent. With the conquer of Africa, the colonial powers had to face the issue of how their new colonies could be made to pay off; _____ had to face the issue of how they might regain their political independence. 177. (QUESTIONS 177-190 will be on the colored pages 892-3, African Political Heroes and Imperial Resistance) Often a country’s political heroes are its _____ and _____, its _____ and _____ – people of power and accomplishment. _____ and _____ of them emphasize grandeur and majesty, reflecting their larger-than-life importance. 178. Two of the political heroes of contemporary _____ are very different, however. One is a short, aging woman of about _____ whose name is _____. The other is a short middle-aged man of about _____ called _____. Both appear undistinguished: scruffy, unkempt, and _____. Yet both were _____ on 27 April 1898 and buried with utmost secrecy. And although they died almost a century ago, their memory is alive in [first blank] and students are taught about them in history books. Why? 179. In 1889, _____, a South African financier and politician, convinced that large deposits of gold existed in Zimbabwe, persuaded the British government to support his efforts to seize Zimbabwe and Zambia. He established a private chartered company known as the _____ (_____) and in 1890 invaded the _____ part of Zimbabwe. 180. The people who lived there were _____ people, and conquering them seemed easy because they were politically fragmented into myriad little states with neither strong _____ nor a _____ tradition. So easy was the conquest, indeed, that the settlers came to view the [first blank] with utter contempt. 181. One of the frequently stated purposes of European imperialism during the scramble for Africa was to carry “_____” to the “_____” peoples of Africa – to “bear the _____” so that the people could improve their lives. 182. For the Shona, however, Rhodes’s agents displayed little perceptible civilization and much to be lamented. The Shona soon had a mass of grievances against the _____. Some of their _____ had been taken. They were forced to work for the settlers for little or no pay. 183. They were compelled to pay _____. Europeans took Shona women as _____. Shona grievances grew steadily. Then, in 1896, their _____ were almost wiped out by a new disease, _____, which the _____ who were occupying _____ had accidentally imported into Africa in the late 1880s and which was spreading _____. That seemed the last straw. 184. The Shona were able to make their complaints felt. At the end of 1895, most of the BSAC police force had gone over the border into the Transvaal to participate in the _____ on the Afrikaner state, and in 1896 they were still languishing in _____. With few police around, the Shona reasoned, the time was ripe for _____ against the BSAC. In June, the Shona rose in rebellion, and _____ settlers were slain before the government knew what was occurring. 185. The BSAC could not believe that the disorganized Shona for whom they had such contempt were capable of such an uprising. When the company’s officials investigated more closely, they were astounded to discover that the uprising, which came to be known as the _____, was being organized and directed by the Shona _____ known as _____. 186. The mediums were people who were believed to become possessed by spirits of Shona _____ and articulated what the ancestors wanted the living to do. The mediums – obscure and seemingly _____ – were able not only to mobilize the attack on the company, but, because of their very lack of _____ in British eyes, to sustain it by _____ on the company, distributing intelligence regarding company troop movements, and relaying messages across Shona country. 187. The result of the work of the spirit mediums was that the BSAC was unable to conquer the Shona quickly. The effort against the _____ war waged by the Shona took more than _____ months, almost _____ the company. Only in October 1897 did the company track down the leader of the rebellion, _____, and his colleagues, including the important _____. 188. By then, however, the uprising had attracted so much _____ in Britain that the company was brought under greater control by the British government. Many of the abuses that had provoked the Shona to rebel were _____, and greater regularity in administration was instituted. The Shona had demonstrated to the company that were was a point beyond which the British could not go. 189. _____ decades later, in the _____, the African people again rose up, this time against the white government of _____, political heir to _____, and this time successfully. They called their rebellion the “_____.” 190. When they finally won, the Africans needed a new group of patriotic _____ from their past about whom to teach in independent Zimbabwe’s schools. Two of those chosen were Kagubi and Nehanda, scruffy and unkempt to be sure, but remembered as early _____ and _____, the memory of whose work against Rhodes was able to travel across the years and inspire Zimbabweans during the 1970s. 191. During the first half of the nineteenth century, strong Asian powers had grown stronger. _____ increased its control over _____ territories; _____ and _____, predecessor to modern _____, enhanced their powers in southeast Asia. 192. By the end of the nineteenth century, Asian political dynasties had suffered reversals. China had been permanently weakened in Inner Asia; _____ had fallen under _____ colonial rule; _____ had lost half its territories. _____ had long constituted an important part of the British Empire. By contrast, _____ became an aggressive power. 193. The _____ proclaimed that on _____ (holiday), 1877, _____ (1837-1901) would add the title of _____ to her many honors. _____, the great jewel in the imperial crown, was a land she had never seen. 194. The queen’s new title, not universally popular in Britain and unnoticed by most _____-stricken Indian _____, in fact changed nothing about the way the British ruled India. Yet it was more than merely a _____ assertion of dominance over a country long controlled by the British. 195. India was the starting point of all British expansion, and it stood at the center of British foreign policy. To protect its _____ to India and to secure its Indian _____, Britain acquired territories and carved out concessions all over the world. Devised by Prime Minister _____ to flatter an aging monarch, the new title of empress was really a calculated warning to _____ – present on India’s _____ frontier in _____ – and to _____, busily pursuing its own interests in Egypt. 196. Formal British rule in India began in 1861 with the appointment of a _____, assisted by _____ and _____ councils. Both of the bodies included some _____ representatives. British rule encountered the _____ (#) main divisions of the highly stratified Hindu society. 197. At the top were _____ – the learned and priestly class – followed by _____ and _____, then by _____ and _____, and finally by _____ and _____. On the outside of the Hindu society were the “_____” – a fifth division relegated to performing society’s most menial tasks. Rather than disrupt the divisive _____ system, the British found it to their advantage to maintain the status quo. 198. Britain’s relationship with India originated in the seventeenth century, when the _____ – a _____ venture free of government control – began limited trading in Indian markets. The need for regulation and protection firmly established British rule by the end of the eighteenth century. Conquest of the _____ in 1849 brought the last independent areas of Indian under British control. 199. Throughout this period, Britain invested considerable overseas capital in India, and in turn India absorbed _____ (fraction) of the total of British exports. The market for Indian _____, for centuries exported to markets in Asia and Europe, collapsed under British _____, and India became a ready market for cheap _____. The British also exploited India’s _____ products, _____, and _____. 200. At the end of the eighteenth century, the British were trading English _____ and Indian _____ for Chinese _____and _____. But Britain’s thirst for Chinese [the blank before last] grew, while Chinese demand for English and Indian textiles slackened. Britain discovered that Indian _____ could be used to balance the trade _____ created by tea. 201. British _____ and local Chinese officials, especially in the entry port of _____, began to expand their profitable involvement in a contraband trade in opium. The _____ held a monopoly over opium cultivation in _____. Opium exports to China mounted phenomenally: from _____ chests in 1729 to _____ chests in 1838. 202. By the 1830s, opium was probably Britain’s most important crop in world markets. The British prospered as opium was pumped into China at rates faster than _____ was flowing out. Chinese buyers began paying for the drug with _____. 203. Concerned about the sharp rise in opium _____, the accompanying social problems, and the massive exporting of _____, the Chinese government reacted. As Chinese officials saw it, they were exchanging their precious metal for British _____. Addicts were threatened with the _____. 204. In 1839, the Chinese government destroyed British opium in the port of _____, touching off the so-called _____ (1839-1842). British expeditionary forces blockaded Chinese ports, besieged Canton, and occupied _____. 205. In protecting the rights of British merchants engaged in illegal trading, Great Britain became the first Western nation to use force to impose its economic interests on China. The _____ (1842) initiated a series of unequal treaties between Europeans and the Chinese and set the pattern for exacting large _____. 206. Between 1842 and 1895, China fought _____ wars with foreigners and lost all of them. Defeat was expensive, as China had to pay costs to the winners. Before the end of the century, _____, _____, _____, and _____ had managed to establish major territorial advantages in their “_____,” sometimes through negotiation and sometimes through force. 207. By 1912, more than _____ major Chinese ports had been handed over to foreign control as “_____.” British spheres included _____, the lower _____, and _____. _____ maintained special interests in South China. _____ controlled the _____ peninsula. _____ laid claim to the _____. 208. Spheres of influence grew in importance at the beginning of the twentieth century, when foreign investors poured capital into _____, which needed treaty protection from competing companies. [last blank] necessarily furthered foreign encroachment and opened up new territories to the claims of _____. 209. As one Chinese official explained it, the railroads were like _____ that threatened to _____ China into many pieces. As a result, China lost control of its _____ and was totally unable to protect its _____. Foreigners established no formal empires in China, but the _____ certainly were evidence of both informal rule and indisputable foreign dominance. 210. Treaty ports were centers of foreign residence and trade, where rules of _____ applied. That meant that foreigners were exempt from Chinese law enforcement and that, though present on Chinese territory, they could be judged only by officials of _____. 211. Extraterritoriality, a privilege not just for _____ but one shared by every foreign _____, implied both a distrust of Chinese legal procedures and a _____ arrogance about the superiority of Western institutions. The arrangements stirred Chinese resentment and contributed considerably to growing anti-foreign sentiment. 212. In order to preserve extraterritorially and maintain informal empires, the Western powers appointed civilian representatives known as _____. Often _____ themselves and in the beginning unpaid in their posts, consuls acted as the _____ of resident merchant communities, judges in all civil and criminal cases, and spokesmen for the commercial interests of the home country. 213. They clearly embodied the _____ intentions of Western governments. Initially they stood outside the diplomatic corps; later they were consigned to its lower ranks. Consuls acted as brokers for _____ and interpreted the international commercial law being forged. 214. Consulates spread beyond China as Western nations used consuls to protect their own interests elsewhere. In _____, consuls represented the trading concerns of European governments and were instrumental in the transition to _____ rule. 215. The rise of Western influence in China coincided with and benefited from Chinese domestic problems, including _____ decline, _____, and successive rebellions. The European powers were willing to prop up the crumbling structure for their own ends, but the _____ of 1900 made clear to the Western powers their limited ability to control social unrest in China. The _____ – _____ so named by Westerners because of the martial rites practiced by their secret society, the _____ – rose up against the foreign and _____ exploitation in north China. 216. At the beginning of the summer of 1900, the Boxers – with the concealed encouragement of the Chinese government – killed Europeans and seized the foreign legations in Beijing. An international expeditionary force of _____ well-armed _____, _____, _____, _____, _____, _____, _____, and _____ troops entered _____ in August to defend the treaty interests of their respective countries. Led by a German _____, the international force followed _____’s urging to remember the _____: “Show no mercy! Take no prisoners!” Systematic plunder and slaughter followed. Beijing was sacked. 217. Abandoning earlier discussions of partitioning China, the international powers accepted the need for a central Chinese government – even one that had betrayed their interests – that would police a populace plagued by demographic pressures, _____, discrimination against _____, excessive _____, exorbitant land rents, and social and economic dislocations created by _____. 218. During the previous year (1899), the United States had asserted its claims in China in the _____. The policy, formulated by U.S. _____ (title) _____, was as much concerned with preserving Chinese sovereignty as it was with establishing equal economic opportunity for foreign competition in Chinese markets. 219. Europeans and Americans wanted to send _____ to China, not _____. A stable central government facilitated their aims. By operating within delineated spheres of influence and using established elites to further their own programs, Westerners protected their financial interests without incurring the costs and responsibilities of _____ rule. 220. European nations pursued imperialist endeavors elsewhere in Asia, acquiring territories on China’s frontiers and taking over states that had formerly paid tribute to the Chinese empire. The British acquired _____ in 1842, _____ in 1886, and _____ in 1898. The _____ took over the _____ in 1858. 221. With the Dutch already well established in _____, France, Great Britain, and the United States each established a center of power in _____ Asia and sought a balance of strength there to complement their global efforts to keep any one of them from getting ahead of the others. 222. The French creation of _____ was administratively the most complex. Composed of _____ territories administered separately, only _____ (south Vietnam) was a formal colony; the other [previous number, minus 1] regions were _____ – _____ (central Vietnam), _____ (northern Vietnam), _____, and _____. 223. _____ power remained strongest in _____ Vietnam and weakest in the _____ where, as in the north, local government was under a combined French and Vietnamese rule. The French approach to colonial role combined hierarchical administration, economic exploitation, and _____. 224. They introduced plantation agriculture for _____ and _____; together with _____, the plantations were concentrated in the _____ region of Indochina. Some light industry developed in the north at _____. Because of its economic growth, [last blank] became the capital of the _____ in 1902. 225. The French established their dominion in Laos at the expense of _____ (_____). The French provoked a crisis over Laos with the Thai, who hoped for _____ backing in the dispute. The [last blank], however, saw French control over Laos as a reasonable part of the regional balance of European power. 226. Laos, _____, and _____ Vietnam all stagnated under French colonial rule. While the _____ in the south continued to export raw materials and crops, political power became more concentrated in the north in Hanoi. 227. _____ was the only country in southeast Asia to escape direct control by the Western powers. Yet it was forced to yield _____ (fraction) the territory it once controlled, and to accept the treaty port system with its tariffs and extraterritoriality. Through government reforms, the Thai attempted the meet the demands of facing foreign powers without forsaking their traditional institutions of _____ monarchy and _____. 228. In the _____, _____ suppression of nationalist sentiments led to increasingly bitter feelings in the 1870s and 1880s. Separate groups of educated and poor people who opposed Spanish rule were unified by the Spanish execution of elite leader _____ (1861-1896). His martyrdom inspired broadly based resistance. 229. The _____ took control of the Philippines from the Spanish during the _____ over _____. Facing continued Filipino resistance, the [first blank] opposed Filipino _____ with its new colonial rule. American colonialism collaborated with a conservative landowning Filipino oligarchy that controlled huge _____ plantations. 230. The plantations impeded the development of a more balanced agriculture that could feed the country’s population. American colonial rule, like colonial regimes elsewhere in the region, fostered an acute Philippine economic dependency on the colonial power. (no questions) 231. The _____ of 1894-1895 revealed Japan’s intentions to compete as an imperialist power in Asia. The modernized and westernized Japanese army easily defeated the ill-equipped and poorly led Chinese forces. As a result, Japan gained the island of _____. Pressing its ambitions on the continent, Japan locked horns with _____ over claims to the _____ peninsula, _____, and _____. 232. Following its victory in the _____ of 1904-1905, Japan expanded into all of those areas, annexing Korea outright in 1910. The war sent a strong message to the West about the ease with which the small Asian nation had defeated the Russian giant and contributed to the heightening of _____ sentiments in _____. Results of a European-dominated World 233. _____ were articulated in an imperialist context, and race emerged as a key cultural factor. With the rise of new contenders for power – the _____ and _____ – and growing criticism about the morality of _____, the Western world was not as predictable in 1914 as it had appeared to be in 1870. 234. Imperialism produced an interdependent world _____, with _____ at its center. Industrial and commercial capitalism linked together the world’s continents in a communications and transportation network unimaginable in earlier ages. As a result, foreign trade increased from _____ percent of world output in 1800 to _____ percent by 1913. 235. The greatest growth in trade occurred in the period from 1870 to _____ as raw materials, manufactured products, _____, and _____ and _____ were transported across seas and continents by those seeking profits. 236. Most trading in the age of imperialism still took place among _____ nations and _____. But entrepreneurs in search of new markets and new resources saw in Africa and Asia opportunities for protected exploitation. Opportunities were not seized but created in nonindustrialized areas of the world as new markets were shaped to meet the needs of Western producers and consumers. 237. European landlords and managers trained _____ farmers to put aside their traditional agricultural methods and grow more “useful” crops such as _____, _____, and _____. The availability of cheaper British textiles of inferior quality drove Indian weavers away from their _____. Chinese _____ producers changed centuries-old techniques to produce [last blank] thread and cloth that was suited to the machinery and mass-production requirements of the _____. 238. Non-European producers undoubtedly derived benefits from the new international trading partnership, but those benefits were often scarce. Trade permitted _____, but at the choice of the colonizer, not the colonized. World production and consumption were being shaped to suit the needs of the West. 239. Capital in search of profits flowed out of the wealthier areas of Europe into the nonindustrialized regions of _____, the _____, and the _____, where capital-intensive expenditures (on _____, for instance) promised high returns. Capital investment in overseas territories also increased phenomenally as railroads were built to gain access to primary goods. 240. _____ maintained its overwhelming dominance in overseas investment, with loans abroad greater than those of its five major competitors – _____, _____, _____, the _____, and _____ – combined. 241. The _____ had become the world’s _____, serving as the clearinghouse for foreign investment on a global scale. The adoption of _____ as the standard for exchange for most European currencies by 1874 further facilitated the operation of a single interdependent trading and investment system. 242. Britain remained the world’s biggest trading nation, with _____ of its exports going to Asia, Africa, and _____ and the other half to Europe and the _____. But Germany was Britain’s fastest-growing competitor, with twice as many exports to Europe and expanding overseas trade by 1914. The United States had recently joined the league of the world’s great trading nations and was running a strong _____ (ranking) in shares of total trade. 243. Foreign investments often took the form of _____ to governments or to _____ guaranteed by governments. Investors might be willing to take risks, but they also expected protection, no less so than merchants and industrialists trading in overseas territories. 244. Together, _____ and _____ interests exerted considerable pressure on European states for control through acquisition and concessions. The vast amounts of money involved help explain the expectations of _____ and the reasons why international competition, rivalry, and instability threatened to lead to conflict and war. 245. The West’s ability to kill and conquer as well as to _____ was, as one _____ social observer argued, proof of its cultural superiority. Every colonizing nation had its spokesmen for the “_____” to _____ and to _____ African and Asian “heathens.” Cultural superiority was only a short step from arguments for racial superiority. 246. Prompted by the U.S. involvement in the _____, the British poet _____ (1865-1936) characterized the responsibilities of the advanced West as “the _____.” The smug and arrogant attitude of his poem about the white man’s mission revealed a deep-seated and unacknowledged racism toward peoples considered “half-_____ and half-_____.” 247. Views of cultural superiority received support from evolutionary theories based on the scientific work of _____ (1820-1903) and _____. In the 1880s, popularizers applied evolutionary ideas about animal and plant life to the development of human society. Just as animals could be hierarchically organized according to observable differences, so too, it was argued, could the different races of human beings. 248. Race and culture were collapsed into each other. If Westerners were culturally superior, as they claimed, they must be racially superior as well. The “_____” came to justify conquest and subjugation as “laws” of human interaction and, by extension, of relations among _____. 249. Ideas about racial and cultural superiority were not confined to books by pseudoscientists and to discussions among policy makers. Public discussions about _____, _____, _____, and _____ reflected new concerns about furthering “the _____ race” – the racial identity of white Westerners. 250. Women throughout Western societies were encouraged by reformers, _____, and doctors to have more children and instructed to take better care of them. “_____ are the most valuable of imperial _____.” Healthy young men were needed in colonies, they were told, to defend Western values. 251. State officials paid new attention to _____ at the end of the nineteenth century, set up _____ programs for children, and provided young women with training in home management, _____, and child care. The programs were no coincidence in an age of imperialism. Their rhetoric was explicitly imperialist and often racist in urging women to preserve the _____ of the white race. 252. In the poem, “White Man’s Burden,” Kipling advised, “Send forth the best ye _____.” All over Europe, newly formed associations and clubs stressed the need for careful _____. In _____, _____ (1822-1911) founded _____, the study of _____ for the purpose of improving inherited characteristics of the race. 253. Imperialism, the propagandists proclaimed, depended on _____ – women who could nurture healthy workers, strong _____ and _____, and intelligent and capable _____. High infant mortality and poor health in children were attributed directly to _____ failings and not to environmental factors or poverty. _____ stressed that German women’s attention to the “_____” – _____, _____, _____ (_____,_____,_____) – would guarantee a race of Germans who would rule the world. 254. British _____ and French _____ publicly applied similar sentiments to their own countries and stressed that the future depended on the devotion of women to their _____ obligations. 255. Some European women participated directly in the _____ experience. As _____ and _____, they supported the civilizing mission. As _____ of officials and managers, they were expected to embody the gentility and values of Western culture. 256. Most men who traded and served overseas did so unaccompanied by women. But when women were present in any numbers, as they were in _____ before 1914, they were expected to preserve the exclusivity of Western communities and to maintain class and status differentiations as a proof of cultural superiority. 257. British professor of _____, _____ (1857-1936), gave the lecture entitled “_____” in 1900. He held the first chair in _____ at the _____, where he applied statistical methods to the study of heredity and evolution. 258. _____ – the relationship and adjustment of human groups to their _____ – was affected by imperial expansion, which dislocated the societies that it touched. Early explorers had disrupted little as they arrived, observed, and then moved on. The missionaries, merchants, soldiers, and businessmen who came later required that those with whom they came into contact must change their thought and behavior. 259. In some cases, dislocation resulted in material improvements, better medical care, and the introduction of modern _____. For the most part, however, the initial ecological impact of the imperialist was negative. Western men and women carried _____ to people who did not share the Westerners’ _____. 260. Traditional village life was destroyed in rural _____, and African _____ societies disintegrated under the European onslaught. Resistance existed everywhere, but only the _____, with their defeat of the Italians at _____ in 1896, managed to have any success in keeping out foreigners. 261. Education of native populations had as its primary goal the improvement of administration and _____ in the colonies. When foreigners ruled indirectly through existing indigenous _____, they often created corrupt and tyrannical _____ that exploited natives. The indirect rule of the British in India was based on a pragmatic desire to keep British costs low. 262. When Asian and African laborers started producing for the Western market, they became dependent on its _____. Victimized for centuries by the vagaries of _____, they now had to contend with the instability and cutthroat competition of _____ in world markets. Individuals migrated from place to place in the countryside and from the countryside to newly formed _____. 263. The fabric of tribal life unraveled. Such migrations necessarily affected family life, with individuals _____ later because they lacked the resources to set up households. The situation paralleled similar disruptions in English society at the beginning of the _____. Women as well as men migrated to find jobs. Many women, cut free of their _____ (as was the case in _____), turned to _____ – literally for _____ – as means of survival. 264. In an extreme example of the colonizers’ disdain for the colonized, some European countries used their overseas territories as dumping grounds for hardened and incorrigible _____. Imitating the earlier example of the _____ in _____, the _____ developed _____ and _____ as _____ colonies in the hope that they could solve their social problems at home by exporting them. 265. The United States provided another variation on imperial expansion. Its _____ drive across the North American continent, beginning at the end of the eighteenth century, established the United States as an imperial power in the _____. 266. By 1848, the relatively young American nation stretched over _____ miles from one ocean to the other. It ha met the opposition and resistance of the Native Americans with armed force, decimated them, and “_____” the survivors in assigned territories, and later on _____. 267. At the end of the nineteenth century, the United States, possessing both the people and the resources for rapid industrial development, turned to the _____ and the _____ islands in pursuit of markets and investment opportunities. By acquiring stepping stones of islands across the Pacific Ocean in the _____ and _____, it secured fueling bases and access to lucrative east Asian ports. 268. And by intervening repeatedly in _____ and building the _____, the United States had established its hegemony in the Caribbean by 1914. Growing in economic power and hegemonic influence, both _____ and the United States had joined the club of imperial powers and were making serious claims against European expansion. 269. Not least significant of the consequences of imperialism was the critique of _____ it produced. Those who condemned [last blank] as exploitative and _____ saw imperialism as an expression of problems inherent in it. 270. In 1902, _____ (1858-1940) published _____, a work that has remained in print ever since. In his book, he argued that _____ and surplus capital at home drove Western industrial countries overseas in search of a cure for those economic ills. 271. Rather than solving the problems by raising workers’ wages, and thereby increasing their _____ power and creating new opportunities for investment in home markets, manufacturers, entrepreneurs, and industrialists sought higher profits abroad. Hobson considered those business interests “economic _____,” making large fortunes at the expense of _____ interests. 272. In the midst of world war, the future leader of the _____, _____ (1870-1924) – or to use his revolutionary name, _____ – added his own critique of capitalism. He did not share Hobson’s belief that capitalism was merely malfunctioning in its imperialist endeavors. 273. Instead, Lenin argued in _____ (1916) that capitalism is inherently and inevitably imperialistic. Because he was sure that Western capitalism was in the process of destroying itself, Lenin called _____ the final “_____.” 274. Critics, historians, and economists have since pointed out that the works by Hobson and Lenin are marred by errors and omissions. Yet the works usher in almost a century of debate over the morality and economic feasibility of imperialism. Hobson as a _____ and Lenin as a _____ highlighted the connections between social problems at home and economic _____. 275. Yet if electoral results and the popular press are any indication, Europeans not only accepted by warmly embraced the responsibilities of empire. Criticism of the backwardness of captive peoples prevailed. Victorian social scientists _____ (1826-1877) told the story of an aged savage who, upon returning to his tribe, informed them that he had “tried civilization for _____ years and it was not worth the trouble.” 276. No matter how intelligent the judgment of this African might seem with hindsight, the possibility of returning to areas of the world not influenced by the civilization of the West was rapidly disappearing in the years before _____. 277. CAPTION QUESTION: French convicts embarking for the penal colony at Guiana, 1903. The penal colony included the notorious _____, where many prisoners died and from which few managed to escape. If a prisoner was sentenced to a tem of less than _____ years, he had to spend an equal period of time in Guiana; if his sentence was more than eight years, he had to remain in the colony permanently. After 1885, only criminals with sentences of _____ were sent to [first blank]. 278. QUESTIONS ON THE FINAL PARAGRAPHS: From the very beginning of the competition for territories and concessions, no European state could act in Africa or Asia without affecting the interests and actions of its rivals at home. The _____ scramble made clear how interlocking the system of European states was after 1870. The development of spheres of influence in _____ underlined the value of world markets and international trade for the survival and expansion of western nations. 279. A “_____” among states guaranteed national security and independence until the end of the nineteenth century. But between 1870 and 1914, _____, _____, and accompanying _____ formation created vast economic disparities. Conflict and disequilibrim challenged European stability and balance. Ultimately, it was the politics of _____ on the European continent, not confrontation in distant colonies, that polarized the European states into two camps. 280. Despite the unresolved conflicts behind all of the crises, European statesmen prided themselves on their ability to settle disputes through reason and _____. Yet it was the problems at home in Europe and not abroad in the colonies that were to exacerbate geopolitical vulnerabilities and detonate a conflict far worse than the world had ever seen. Check here for answers. (Some are really dumb, I'm just warning you...) Official Word Documents - Italics are conserved, easy to print! OFFICIAL WORD DOCUMENT WITH QUESTIONS OFFICIAL WORD DOCUMENT WITH ANSWERS Isaac Bleaman - Jan. 2006