AP European History
Chapter 19: Culture and Society in Eighteenth-century Europe
Über-Detailed Study Questions
Happy Famililes and Eighteenth-century Culture
1. “_____ are all alike,” wrote _____ in the nineteenth century when the idea of a happy family was already a cliché.
2. For those in the eighteenth century, personal happiness was an invention of the _____, the result of novel attitudes about human aspirations and human capabilities.
3. “Happiness is a new idea in Europe,” wrote _____. It emerged in response to the belief that what was good brought _____ and what was bad brought _____. Happiness, both individual and collective, became the _____ by which life was measured.
4. _____ and _____ were to be companions, filled with romantic love for each other and devoted to domestic _____.
5. _____, the product of their affection, were to be doted on, treated not as miniature adults to be lectured and beaten, but as unfilled _____ into which poured all that was good.
6. Were ever a couple more in love than the husband and wife depicted in _____ by _____? In the painting, the man clasps his wife’s arm to his _____, she lays her hand on his shoulder. Their sighs are almost audible!
7. The loving couple has come together to see how the _____ has cared for their child.
8. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the use of a wet nurse was still common among the families of the French _____, the class to which the couple picture belonged. As time wore on, babies were kept in the homes, nursed by the mothers themselves. In part this change was a response to the higher _____ among infants sent out to wet nurses.
9. But a wet nurse who could be _____, that is, one who lived near enough to be visited, but far enough away from the town to enjoy wholesome _____, might be the best of both worlds. That is just what the couple here found, and in the picture they come, with their other child (the boy in the _____), to see their baby sleeping peacefully, the wet nurse sitting attentively at the infant’s side.
10. It is shocking to realize that the wet nurse cannot be much older than _____, an age beyond which wealthy families would not hire her for fear either that she would not have much milk or that it would be _____.
11. Her husband, if he is still alive, is hard at work with no leisure time for visits to the country. Not only does the wet nurse have to sell her milk, but she also _____, to keep her family clothed and to earn a little extra to put away for hard times.
12. The newest fads of the age have passed her family by. While the child in the cradle will be spoiled by _____ manufactured especially for children – _____, _____, _____, and _____ – the children of the wet nurse must make do with household objects and their own imaginations. A ball of _____ thrown to the _____ helps the elder child while away the hours.
13. Decorative architecture, especially _____, reflected the increasing sociability of the aristocracy. _____became a central part of aristocratic life, losing its previous formality. _____ became a cultural passion. The _____ made its first appearance in the eighteenth century, and _____ music enjoyed unparalleled popularity.
14. Only the wealthiest could afford to stage private _____, the other musical passion of the age. The _____ of _____ employed _____ musicians and a _____, who for most of the late eighteenth century was _____, father of the modern _____.
15. The previous conductor’s post was not an honorary one. In addition to hiring and managing the _____, he was expected to direct _____ operas and _____ concerts each _____, as well as music for _____ services.
16. An aristocratic _____ was essential for the aspiring composer. If he could not find one or if, like _____, he could not bend his will to one, he could not flourish. While Haydn lived comfortably in a _____, Mozart, probably the greatest musical genius in Western history, lived impoverished in a _____ and died at age _____ from lack of medical attention.
17. Musical entertainments in European country houses were matched by the _____ and _____ entertainments of the urban _____. Papers on _____ and literary subjects were read at _____ dinner parties and discussed with great seriousness in _____ rooms.
18. In salons, most of which were organized by the _____ and _____ of the nobility, were to be found the most influential thinkers of the day presenting the ideas of the _____, a new European outlook on religion, society, and politics
19. At the core of the Enlightenment was _____, a questioning of traditional institutions, customs, and morals. In 1762, the French philosopher _____ published one of the most important works on social theory, _____, which opened with the gripping maxim, “Man is born free and everywhere he is in _____.”
20. But most of the thinkers of the Enlightenment were not so much philosophers as _____, knowledgeable popularizers whose skills were in simplifying and publicizing a hodgepodge of new ideas.
21. In France, Enlightenment intellectuals were called _____ and claimed all the arts and sciences as their purview. The _____ (_____ volumes, 1751-1780) edited by _____, was one of the greatest achievements of the age. Titled _____, it attempted to summarize all acquired knowledge and to dispel all imposed superstitions.
22. One of the philosophes’ enemies said: “Just what is a philosophe? A kind of _____ in society who feels under no obligation towards its manners and morals, its proprieties, its politics, or its religion. One may expect anything from men of their _____.”
23. The Enlightenment was by no means solely a French phenomenon. Its greatest figures included the Scottish economist _____, the Italian legal reformer _____, and the German philosopher _____.
24. In France, the Enlightenment began among anti-establishment critics; in Scotland and the German states, it flourished in the _____; in _____, _____, and _____, it was propagated by the monarchy.
25. The Enlightenment began in the _____s and was still going strong a half century later when its attitudes had been absorbed into the mainstream of European thought.
26. In his famous essay, _____, Immanuel Kant describes enlightened thought simply as freedom to use one’s own _____.
27. In 1734, there appeared in France a small book titled _____. Its author, _____, had spent _____ years in Britain, and while there he had made it his business to study the differences between the peoples of the two nations.
28. The previous man loved the British. They practiced _____ and were not held under the sway of a venal _____. They valued people for their _____ rather than their birth. Their political _____ was a marvel.
29. The British also made national heroes of their _____, _____, and _____. In all of this, Voltaire contrasted British virtue with French _____. He attacked the French clergy and nobility directly, the French _____ implicitly.
30. Not only did he praise the genius and accomplishments of _____ above those of _____, but he also graphically contrasted the Catholic church’s persecution of the second blank with the British state’s celebration of the first blank.
31. Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters were officially banned and publicly _____, and a warrant was issued for his _____. The book ignited in France a movement that would soon be found in nearly every corner of Europe.
32. Born in _____ in 1694 to a _____ family with court office, _____, who later took the pen name Voltaire, was educated by the _____, who encouraged his poetic talents and instilled in him an enduring love of literature.
33. He was a difficult student, especially has he had already rejected the core of the Jesuits’ religious doctrine. He was no less difficult as he grew older and began a career as a poet and _____. It was not long before he was imprisoned in the _____ for penning verses that maligned the honor of the _____ of France.
34. Released from prison, Voltaire insulted a _____, who retaliated by having his servants publicly beat Voltaire. Voltaire issued a challenge for a _____, a greater insult than the first, given his low birth. Again he was sent to the Bastille and was only released on the promise that he would leave the country immediately.
35. Thus Voltaire found himself in _____, where he spent _____ years learning English, writing plays, and enjoying his celebrity free from the dangers that celebrity entailed in France. When he returned to Paris, he tried to popularize Britain to Frenchmen. He wrote and produced a number of _____ and began writing the _____, a work that not only secured his reputation but also forced him into exile at the village of _____, where he moved in with the _____.
36. The last blank, though only _____ at the time of her liaison with Voltaire, was one of the leading advocates of _____ science in France. She built a _____ in her home and introduced Voltaire to _____ science.
37. While she undertook the immense challenge of translating Newton into French, Voltaire worked on innumerable projects: _____, _____, _____ and _____ tracts (which she wisely kept him from punishing), and _____. Voltaire was crushed when she died.
38. At the time of her death, Voltaire was almost _____, and began his travels. He was invited to _____ by _____, who greatly admired him. The relationship between the two great _____ was predictably stormy and resulted in Voltaire’s arrest in _____. Finally allowed to leave _____, Voltaire eventually settled in _____, where he quickly became embroiled in local politics and was none too politely asked to leave.
39. Voltaire’s youthful gaiety and high spirits, which remained in him long past youth, were dealt a serious blow by the tragic _____ in _____ in 1775, when thousands of people attending _____ were killed.
40. _____ in the face of such a senseless tragedy was no longer possible. His black mood was revealed in _____, which was to become his enduring legacy. It introduced its ivory-towered intellectual _____, the overly optimistic Candide, and the very practical philosophy, “We must cultivate our own _____.”
41. It was Voltaire’s capacity to challenge all _____ that was probably his greatest contribution to Enlightenment attitudes. He held nothing sacred. He questioned his own _____ and the _____ of his mother.
42. At the height of the _____, his body was removed from his resting place at _____ and taken in great pomp to _____, where it was interred in the _____, During the funeral procession, the Parisian masses chanted, “Voltaire taught us to be _____.” When the monarchy was restored in 1815, his bones were unceremoniously dumped in a _____ pit.
43. Some enlightened thinkers based their critical outlook on _____, the belief that nothing could be known for certain. When the Scottish philosopher _____ was accused of being an _____, he countered the charge by saying that he was too skeptical to be certain that God did not exist.
44. The previous man’s first major work, _____, made absolutely no impression upon his contemporaries. For a time he took a post as a _____, then served as a _____, and finally found a position as a _____. During the course of his various employments, he continued to write, publishing a series of essays on the subject of _____ and rewriting his treatise into _____, his greatest philosophical work.
45. Hume made two seminal contributions to Enlightenment thought. He exploded the synthesis of _____ by proving that neither _____ nor _____ could be proved to exist with any certainty. He believed that only _____ existed, either as impressions of material objects or as ideas and if human understanding was based on sensory perception rather than on _____, then there could be no certainty in the universe.
46. Hume’s second point launched a frontal attack on established religion: if there could be no certainty, then the revealed truths of _____ religion could have no basis. In his historical analysis of the origins of religion, Hume argued that “religion grows out of _____ and _____.”
47. He attacked the core of Christian explanations based on either _____ or _____ by arguing that to anyone who understood the basis of human perception it would take a miracle to believe in miracles.
48. In 1749, Hume received in the mail a work from an admiring Frenchman, titled _____. The sender was _____, _____. Born in _____, he ultimately inherited both a large landed esate and the office of _____ of the _____.
49. The previous man’s novel, _____ was a brilliant satire of Parisian _____, French _____, and European _____ all bound together by the story of a Persian _____ who leaves his _____ to learn about the ways of the world.
50. Montesquieu spent nearly two years in _____, for which, like Voltaire, he came to have the greatest admiration. Back in Bordeaux, he began to assemble his thoughts for what he believed would be a great work of political theory.
51. The two societies he most admired were ancient _____ and present-day _____, and he studied the forms of their government and the principles that animated them.
52. _____ was published in 1748, and despite its gargantuan size and densely packed examples, it was immediately recognized as a _____. _____ of _____ kept it at her bedside, and it was the single most influential work for the _____ of the _____.
53. In both Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Laws Montesquieu explored how _____ could be achieved and _____ avoided. He divided all forms of government into _____, _____, and _____.
54. Each form of government had its own peculiar spirit: _____ and _____ in republics, _____ in monarchies, and _____ in despotisms. Each spirit was prone to abuse and had to be restrained if republics were not to give way to _____ and _____, monarchies to _____, and despotisms to _____.
55. Montesquieu classified _____ as either _____ or _____, and through the use of extensive historical examples attempted to demonstrate how moderation could be maintained through rules and restraints, through the spirit of the law.
56. For Montesquieu, a successful government was one in which _____ were separated and _____ and _____ existed within the institutions of the state. As befit a _____, he insisted on the absolute separation of the judiciary from all other branches of government.
57. The law needed to be independent and _____, and it needed to be _____. Montesquieu advocated that law codes be reformed and reduced mainly to regulate _____ against persons and _____.
58. _____ should fit the crime but should be _____. Montesquieu was one of the first to advocate the abolition of _____. Like most Europeans, he saw monarchy as being the only realistic form of government, but he argued that for a monarchy to be successful, it needed a strong and independent _____.
59. He based his arguments on what he believed was the case in _____, which he praised as the only state in Europe in which _____ resided.
60. Enlightened thinkers attacked established institutions, above all the _____. Most were _____ who believed in the existence of God on rational grounds only. Following the materialistic ideas of the new science, deists believed that _____ conformed to its own material laws and operated without _____.
61. God, in a popular Enlightenment image, was like a _____ who constructed the elaborate mechanism, wound it, and gave the _____ its first swing. After that, the clock worked by itself.
62. Deists were accused of being _____, and they certainly opposed the ritual forms of both Catholic and Protestant worship. They also opposed the role of the Church in _____, for the last blank was the key to an enlightened view of the future. That meant, above all, a conflict with the _____.
63. “Let’s _____ a Jesuit,” was _____’s half-facetious comment.
64. _____ attacked the educational system. His tract on education, disguised as the romantic novel _____, argued that children should be taught by appealing to their interests rather than with strict discipline.
65. Education was crucial because the Enlightenment was dominated by the idea of the British philosopher _____ that the mind was blank at birth, a _____ – “white paper void of all characters” – and that was filled up by _____.
66. Contrary to the arguments of _____, John Locke wrote in _____ (1690) that there were no innate ideas and no good or evil that was not conditioned by experience.
67. For Locke, as for a host of thinkers after him, good and evil were defined as _____ and _____. Morality was a sense experience rather than a _____ experience. It was also relative rather than absolute, an observation that derived from increased interested in _____ cultures.
68. The _____ was the most popular of a genre describing non-European societies that knew nothing of Christian morality.
69. The object of government, in the words of the Scottish moral philosopher _____, was “the greatest _____ of the greatest number.” The principle was at the core of _____, _____’s pioneering work of legal reform.
70. _____ were instituted to promote happiness within society. They had to be formulated equitably for both criminal and victim. Punishment was to act as a deterrent to crime rather than as _____. Therefore, Beccaria advocated the abolition of _____ to gain _____, the end of _____, and the rehabilitation of criminals through the improvement of _____.
71. By 1776, happiness was established as one of the basic rights of man, enshrined in the _____ as “life, liberty, and the _____.”
72. _____ was a word invented in the eighteenth century to express the feeling of liberation from the weight of centuries of traditions. “This is the _____ and all things turn out for the best, “ was the satirical slogan of Voltaire’s Candide. He believed that it was taken too far.
73. _____, an idea that not all enlightened thinkers shared, was another invention of the age. It was expressed most cogently by the French philosopher the _____ in _____, in which he developed an almost evolutionary view of human development from a savage state of nature to a future of harmony and _____.
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